Language Variations Resources Menu

Language Variations

Curated Resources Menu

The purpose of the Evidence Advocacy Center’s Language Variations Team is to improve the evidence/research-based instruction which can positively impact the educational outcomes of students with language variations in Preschool through 12^th grade. The Language Variations menu provides resources that are scientifically reliable and from evidence from effective school results and provides not only national reports from trusted organizations but also published articles and websites. These references and resources are provided in support of Multilingual Learners, Emergent Bilingual Learners, English Language Learners, and students who speak English language varieties from General American English.

Have questions or need implementation support?

For a specialized menu of resources for your specific needs, and to discuss implementation guidance and support, please contact us.

Language Variations Maxims

Maxims that pertain to individuals with language variations are developed to ensure all instruction is differentiated, based on reliable research, and incorporates culturally and linguistically responsive teaching practices.

Maxim 1

Maxim 1: ELs/EBs are best served in long-term bilingual education (at least through middle school; ideally through high school graduation) where the goals are bilingualism, biliteracy, biculturalism.

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Baker, D. L. (2023—November). 1. Bridging Languages: Supporting Bilingual Students for Success. The Podcast: https://www.boomplay.com/episode/5629479

Baker, D. L., Basaraba, D., & Polanco, P. (2016). Connecting the present to the past: Furthering the research on bilingualism and bilingual education. Review of Research in Education Centennial Volume 40(1), 821-883. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16660691

Baker, D. L., Cummings, K., & Smolkowski, K. (2022). Diagnostic accuracy of Spanish and English screeners with Spanish and English criterion measures for bilingual students in Grades 1 and 2. Journal of School Psychology, 92, 299-323.

Baker, D. L., & Ketterlin-Geller, L. (2010, December/January). Conceptualizing a schoolwide bilingual literacy model: Closing the achievement gap through systematic formative assessment. NABE News, 32(2), 6–9.

Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Kieffer, M. J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.

Brooks, M. D. (2019). Transforming literacy education for long-term English learners: Recognizing brilliance in the undervalued. Routledge.

Cavanaugh, M. P. (1996). History of teaching English as a second language. English Journal, 85(8), 40–44.

Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom. 2nd ed. Bilingual Education Services.

Cummings, K. D., Smolkowski, K., & Baker, D. L. (2021). Comparison of literacy screener risk selection between English proficient students and English learners. Learning Disability Quarterly, 44(2), 96-109.

Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Kieffer, M. J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department
of Education. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED544783

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D. (2008). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP model.

Francis, D. J., Santi, K. L., Khalaf, S., Bunta, F., Rojas, R., Gusewski, S., & Hiebert, L. (2019). Identification of disabilities in Spanish-speaking children in English-speaking contexts. All about Language: Science, Theory, and Practice. Brookes Publishing.

Genesee, F., Lindholm-Leary, K., Saunders, W., & Christian, D. (2006). Educating English language learners. Cambridge University Press.

Goldenberg, C., & Wagner, K. (2015). Bilingual education: Reviving an American tradition. American Educator, 39(3), 28.

Goldenberg, C., & Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2023). Literacy research on English learners: Past, present, and future. Reading League Journal, January/February 2023.

Richards-Tutor, C., Baker, D. L., Gersten, R., Baker, S. K., & Smith, J. M. (2016). The effectiveness of reading interventions for English learners: A research synthesis of studies published since 2000. Exceptional Children, 82(2), 144–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402915585483

Short, D. J., Fidelman, C. G., & Louguit, M. (2012). Developing academic language in English language learners through sheltered instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 46(2), 334–361.

Slavin, R., Madden, N., Calderón, M., Chamberlain, A., & Hennessy, M. (2011). Reading and language outcomes of a multiyear randomized evaluation of transitional bilingual education. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33, 47–58.

The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk. (2021). 10 key practices for teaching reading in English-Spanish bilingual programs. https://meadowscenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/10Key_ReadingBilingual_WEB.pdf

Umansky, I. M., & Reardon, S. F. (2014). Reclassification patterns among Latino English learner students in bilingual, dual immersion, and English immersion classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 51(5), 879–912.

Additional Resources:

MTSS: Increasing Student Engagement and Accountable Talk in the Upper Elementary Grades https://elitetexas.org/files/downloads/teacher-toolkit.pdf

MTSS for ELs: Literacy Implementation Rubric and Worksheets https://mtss4els.org/tools/mtss-for-els

MTSS for ELs: Core and Supplemental Biliteracy Instruction for English Learners (Brief 4) https://www.mtss4els.org/files/resource-files/Brief4.pdf

MTSS for ELs: Core and Supplemental English as a Second Language Literacy Instruction for English Learners (Brief 3) https://www.mtss4els.org/files/resource-files/Brief3.pdf

Maxim 2

Maxim 2: If instructed to read in their first language, all maxims apply in equal measure; variations in instruction and curriculum will be determined by orthographic features of the written language.

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on language-minority children and youth. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2020). Literacy foundations for English learners: A comprehensive guide to evidence-based instruction. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Dehaene, S. (2013, May). Inside the letterbox: How literacy transforms the human brain. Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science, Vol. 2013. Dana Foundation. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3704307/

Dixon, L. Q., Zhao, J., & Joshi, R. M. (2010). Influence of L1 orthography on spelling English words by bilingual children: A natural experiment comparing syllabic, phonological, and morphosyllabic first languages. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(3), 211–221.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., Short, D., & Toppel, K. (2024). Making content comprehensible for multilingual learners: The SIOP model. Pearson.

Ehri, L. C., Dreyer, L. G., Flugman, B., & Gross, A. (2007). Reading rescue: An effective tutoring intervention model for language-minority students who are struggling readers in first grade. American Educational Research Journal, 44(2), 414–448.

Goldenberg, C. (2013). Unlocking the research on English learners: What we know—and don’t yet know—about effective instruction. American Educator, 37(2), 4–11, 38.

Goldenberg, C., & Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2023). Literacy research on English learners: Past, present, and future. The Reading League, 4(1), 1–20.

Kovelman, I., Baker, S. A., & Petitto, L. A. (2008). Age of first bilingual language exposure as a new window into bilingual reading development. Bilingualism: Language & Cognition, 11(2), 203–223.

Labotka, D., Sun, X., Nickerson, N., Zhang, K., Eggleston, R. L., Yu, C. L., Hoeft, F., Uchikoshi, Y., & Kovelman, I. (2021). Morphological awareness and its role in early word reading in English monolinguals, Spanish-English, and Chinese-English simultaneous bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.

Lindner, A. L., Wijekumar, K., & Joshi, R. M. (2020). English spelling performance in writing samples among Spanish-speaking ELLs. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(2), 114–122.

Marks, R. A., Labotka, D., Sun, X., Nickerson, N., Shang, K., Eggleston, R. L., Yu, C., Uchikoshi, Y., Hoeft, F., & Kovelman, I. (2022). Morphological awareness contributes to early literacy in linguistically-diverse learners. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition.

Smith, J. L. M., Baker, D. L., & Santoro, L. E. (2009, January/February). Early intervention in bilingual education: Teaching phonological awareness in Spanish. NABE News, 31(2), 56, 9–14, 27–28.

Zhao, J., Quiroz, B., Dixon, L. Q., & Joshi, R. M. (2016). Comparing bilingual to monolingual learners on English spelling: A meta-analytic review. Dyslexia, 22(3), 193–213.

Maxim 3

Maxim 3: If instructed to read and write in a second language or different language variety they are simultaneously learning to speak and understand, (i.e. General American English) English oral language instruction (phonology and semantics) must be specifically targeted to support students’ acquiring and developing literacy skills (the orthography), helping them access meaning from text, and be able to communicate in writing.

Baker, D. L., & Santoro, L. (2023). Quality read alouds matter: How you teach is just as important as what you teach. The Reading Teacher.

Cheung, A., & Slavin, R. E. (2005). Effective reading programs for English language learners and other language-minority students. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(2), 241–267.

Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom. 2nd ed. Bilingual Education Services.

Gatlin-Nash, B., Johnson, L., & Lee-James, R. (2020). Linguistic differences and learning to read for nonmainstream dialect speakers. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 46(3), 28–35.

Goldenberg, C. (2020). Reading wars, reading science, and English learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S131–S144.

Short, D. J., Fidelman, C. G., & Louguit, M. (2012). Developing academic language in English language learners through sheltered instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 46(2), 334–361. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.23

Vaughn, S., Mathes, P., Linan-Thompson, S., Cirino, P., Carlson, C., Pollard-Durodola, S., Cárdenas Hagan, E., & Francis, D. (2006a). Effectiveness of an English intervention for first-grade English language learners at risk for reading problems. The Elementary School Journal, 107(2), 153–180. https://doi.org/10.1086/510653

Additional Resources:

MTSS: A Strategic Book Club Routine for Building Vocabulary and Comprehension Skills https://elitetexas.org/files/downloads/TextTalks-Flipbook.pdf

MTSS: Implementing Interactive Read Alouds for ELs Prekindergarten Teachers https://www.mtss4els.org/files/resource-files/Flipbook-EC-WEB.pdf

K–3 Teachers https://www.mtss4els.org/files/resource-files/Flipbook-PG-WEB.pdf

Maxim 4

Maxim 4: In addition, EL/EB/ML students need comprehensive English language development instruction and opportunities so that they can develop high levels of English language proficiency, which in turn will help promote higher levels of English literacy.

Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom. 2nd ed. Bilingual Education Services.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., Short, D., & Toppel, K. (2024). Making content comprehensible for multilingual learners: The SIOP model. Pearson.

Goldenberg, C. (2020). Reading wars, reading science, and English learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S131–S144.

Goldenberg, C. (2013). Unlocking the research on English learners: What we know—and don’t yet know—about effective instruction. American Educator, 37(2), 4–11, 38. Available at Unlocking the Research on English Learners, American Educator Vol. 37, No. 2, Summer 2013, AFT

Robertson, K., & Lafond, S. (2008). How to support ELL students with interrupted formal education (SIFEs). Colorín Colorado.

Saunders, W., Goldenberg, C., & Marcelletti, D. (2013). Guidelines for English language development instruction. American Educator, 37(2), 13–25, 38–39. Available at http://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/summer-2013/english-language-development

Short, D. J., Fidelman, C. G., & Louguit, M. (2012). Developing academic language in English language learners through sheltered instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 46(2), 334–361.

Additional Resources:

MTSS for ELs: Literacy Implementation Rubric and Worksheets https://mtss4els.org/tools/mtss-for-els

MTSS for ELs: Professional Development to Support a Multitiered Instructional Framework (Brief 5) https://www.mtss4els.org/files/resource-files/Brief5.pdf

MTSS: Promoting Leadership and Collaboration for an Effective Multitiered System of Supports for English Learners https://www.mtss4els.org/files/resource-files/Series2-Brief5.pdf

Maxim 5 and Maxim 6

Maxim 5: Teachers providing English-medium content instruction for EL/EB/ML students need ongoing, job-embedded professional development so that they understand and can implement instruction that (1) shares all aspects of effective instruction for students in general (or already English-proficient?) while also (2) explicitly helping promote English language development.

Maxim 6: Teachers providing Standardized American English/ General American English students need ongoing, job-embedded professional development so that they understand and can implement instruction that (1) shares all aspects of effective instruction.

August, D., Branum-Martin, L., Cardenas-Hagan, E., & Francis, D. J. (2009). The impact of an instructional intervention on the science and language learning of middle grade English language learners. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(4), 345–376.

Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D. N., … White, C. E. (2004). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(2), 188–215.

Echevarria, J., Richards-Tutor, C., Chinn, V., & Ratleff, P. (2011). Did they get it? The role of fidelity in teaching English learners. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 54(6), 425–434.

Estrella, G., Au, J., Jaeggi, S. M., & Collins, P. (2018). Is inquiry science instruction effective for English language learners? A meta-analytic review. AERA Open, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858418767402

Goldenberg, C. (2020). Reading wars, reading science, and English learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S131–S144.

Lesaux, N. K., Kieffer, M. J., Faller, S. E., & Kelley, J. G. (2010). The effectiveness and ease of implementation of an academic vocabulary intervention for linguistically diverse students in urban middle schools. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 196–228. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.2.3

Loeb, S., Soland, J., & Fox, L. (2014). Is a good teacher a good teacher for all? Comparing value added of teachers with their English learners and non-English learners. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(4), 457–475. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373714527788

O’Day, J. (2009). Good instruction is good for everyone—or is it? English language learners in a balanced literacy approach. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 14(1), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824660802715502

Stephens, A., & Francis, D. (Eds.). (2018). English learners in STEM subjects: Transforming classrooms, schools, and lives. National Academies Press.

Vaughn, S., Martinez, L. R., Linan-Thompson, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carlson, C. D., & Francis, D. J. (2009). Enhancing social studies vocabulary and comprehension for seventh-grade English language learners: Findings from two experimental studies. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(4), 297–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345740903167018

Ybarra, S. E., & Hollingsworth, J. R. (2017). Integrated or designated ELD: 6 things to know about ELD instruction. Dataworks Educational Research. Retrieved from https://dataworks-ed.com/wordpress-content/uploads/IntegratedDesignated_ELD.pdf

Additional Resources:

MTSS for ELs: Literacy Implementation Rubric and Worksheets https://mtss4els.org/tools/mtss-for-els

Language Variations Resources

National Report Resources

Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth Executive Summary. This report synthesized research on the education of language-minority children and youth with regard to literacy attainment.

Promoting the Educational Success of Children and Youth Learning English National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine – Access to full book. This resource examines evidence from research on Dual language learners and English learners from birth to age 21.

Teaching Academic Content and Literacy to English Learners in Elementary and Middle School Institute of Education Sciences (IES) Practice Guide – What Works Clearinghouse (WWC). This guide offers educators specific, evidence-based recommendations that address the challenge of teaching English learners.

Effective Literacy and English Language Instruction for English Learners in the Elementary Grades Institute of Education Sciences (IES) Practice Guide – What Works Clearinghouse (WWC). This guide provides practical and coherent information on critical topics related to literacy instruction for English learners.

Website Resources for Implementation

Multitiered System of Supports for English Learners: This website provides information for supporting multilingual learners within an MTSS system.

National Center on Improving Literacy (NCIL): This website includes resources and information for supporting literacy for all students and those with diverse needs.

10 Key Policies and Practice for Teaching English Language Learners: This center offers studies and information for supporting older multilingual learners in particular.

Center for the Success of English Learners: This center offers studies and information for supporting older multi-lingual learners in particular.

¡Colorín Colorado!: This website is focused on information for teaching multi-lingual learners.

Reading Universe: This website has video models and lessons that support all students and also targets multi-lingual learners.

My Languages: This website is dedicated to language learning and resources in languages all over the world are included.

Supporting the Diverse Needs of Students: This website from the Australian Education Research Organisation provides Practice Guides to support educators.

Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD): This website from the Australian Education Research Organisation provides guides, resources, and research reports to support educators working with culturally and linguistically diverse students.

Textbook Resources

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Brooks, M. D. (2019). Transforming literacy education for long-term English learners: Recognizing brilliance in the undervalued. Routledge.

Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2020). Literacy foundations for English learners: A comprehensive guide to evidence-based instruction. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D. (2008). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP model. Pearson.

Genesee, F., Lindholm-Leary, K., Saunders, W., & Christian, D. (2006). Educating English language learners. Cambridge University Press.

Goldenberg, C., & Coleman, R. (2010). Promoting academic achievement among English learners: A guide to the research. Corwin Press.

Le Menstrel, S., & Takanishi, R. (Eds.). (2017). Promoting the educational success of children and youth learning English: Promising futures. National Academies Press.

Stephens, A., & Francis, D. (Eds.). (2018). English learners in STEM subjects: Transforming classrooms, schools, and lives. National Academies Press.

Research and Article Resources

August, D., Branum-Martin, L., Cárdenas-Hagan, E., & Francis, D. J. (2009). The impact of an instructional intervention on the science and language learning of middle grade English language learners. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(4), 345–376.

Baker, D. L. (2022). S5-E4. What bilingualism can teach us. Science of Teaching Reading: The Podcast. https://amplify.com/episode/science-of-reading-the-podcast/season-5/episode-4-what-bilingualism-can-teach-us-with-dr-doris-baker/

Baker, D. L. (2023, November). 1. Bridging Languages: Supporting bilingual students for success. The Podcast. https://www.boomplay.com/episode/5629479

Baker, D. L., Al Otaiba, S., Ortiz, M. S., Correa, V., & Cole, R. (2014). Vocabulary development and intervention for English language learners in the early grades. In J. Benson (Ed.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 46, 281-338. Elsevier.

Baker, D. L., Burns, D., Kame’enui, E., Smolkowski, K., & Baker, S. K. (2015). Does small group explicit instruction support the transition from Spanish to English reading instruction for first grade English learners at risk for reading difficulties? Learning Disability Quarterly, 39(4), 226-239.

Baker, D. L., Cummings, K., & Smolkowski, K. (2022). Diagnostic accuracy of Spanish and English screeners with Spanish and English criterion measures for bilingual students in grades 1 and 2. Journal of School Psychology, 92, 299-323.

Baker, D. L., Ma, H. S., & Gallegos, E. (2019). Increasing parental knowledge through workshops on early childhood programs, home literacy, and technology use. Bilingual Research Journal, 42, 491-509.

Baker, D. L., McCoach, B. D., Ware, S., Coyne, M. D., & Rattan, S. M. (2021). Effects of Spanish vocabulary knowledge on the English word knowledge and listening comprehension of bilingual students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism.

Baker, D. L., Park, Y., & Andress, T. (2023). Longitudinal predictors of bilingual language proficiency, decoding, and oral reading fluency on reading comprehension in Spanish and in English. School Psychology Review, 52(4), 421-434.

Baker, D. L., Park, Y., Baker, S. K., Basaraba, D., Kame’enui, E., & Beck, C. (2012). Effects of a paired bilingual reading program on the reading performance of English learners in grades 1-3. Journal of School Psychology, 50(6), 737-758.

Baker, D. L., Richards-Tutor, C., Gersten, R., Baker, S. K., & Smith, J. (2017). Building literacy for English learners within Response to Intervention. In E. C. Lopez, S. G. Nahari, & S. L. Proctor (Eds.), The handbook of multicultural school psychology: An interdisciplinary perspective (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Baker, D. L., Richards-Tutor, C., Sparks, A., & Canges, R. (2018). Review of single-subject research examining the effectiveness of interventions for at-risk English learners. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 33(2), 64–74.

Baker, D. L., & Santoro, L. (2023). Quality read alouds matter: How you teach is just as important as what you teach. The Reading Teacher.

Baker, D. L., Santoro, L., Ware, S., Cuellar, D., Oldham, A., Cuticelli, M., Coyne, M., Loftus-Rathan, S., & McCoach, B. (2015). Understanding and implementing the Common Core vocabulary standards in kindergarten. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47(5), 264-271.

Baker, D. L., Stoolmiller, M., Good, R. H., & Baker, S. K. (2011). Effects of reading comprehension on passage fluency in Spanish and English for second-grade English language learners. School Psychology Review, 40(3), 331-351.

Baker, S. K., Fien, H., & Baker, D. L. (2010). Robust reading instruction in the early grades: Conceptual and practical issues in the integration and evaluation of tier 1 and tier 2 instructional supports. Focus on Exceptional Children, 42(9), 1-20.

Barrera, M., & Liu, K. K. (2010). Challenges of general outcomes measurement in the RTI progress monitoring of linguistically diverse exceptional learners. Theory Into Practice, 49(4), 273-280.

Burr, E., Haas, E., & Ferriere, K. (2015). Identifying and supporting English learner students with learning disabilities: Key issues in the literature and state practice (REL 2015-086). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory West.

Cavanaugh, M. P. (1996). History of teaching English as a second language. English Journal, 85(8), 40-44.

Cheung, A., & Slavin, R. E. (2005). Effective reading programs for English language learners and other language-minority students. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(2), 241-267.

Connor, C., Baker, D. L., & Allor, J. (2020). Multiple language exposure for children with autism spectrum disorder from culturally and linguistically diverse communities. Bilingual Research Journal, 43(3), 286-303.

Correa, V., Lo, Y., Godfrey-Hurrell, K., Swart, K., & Baker, D. L. (2015). Effects of adapted dialogic reading on oral language and vocabulary knowledge of Latino preschoolers at risk for English language delays. Multiple Voices for Ethnically Diverse Exceptional Learners, 15(2), 3-21.

Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom. Bilingual Educational Services.

Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance. (n.d.). What research has been conducted to identify effective strategies for supporting struggling readers in upper elementary grades? U.S. Department of Education.

Dehaene, S. (2013). Inside the letterbox: How literacy transforms the human brain. Cerebrum: The Dana Forum on Brain Science, 2013. Dana Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3704307/

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D. (2008). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP model. Pearson.

Echevarria, J., Richards-Tutor, C., Chinn, V., & Ratleff, P. (2011). Did they get it? The role of fidelity in teaching English learners. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 54(6), 425–434.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., Short, D., & Toppel, K. (2024). Making content comprehensible for multilingual learners: The SIOP model. Pearson.

Gatlin-Nash, B., Johnson, L., & Lee-James, R. (2020). Linguistic differences and learning to read for nonmainstream dialect speakers. Perspectives on Language & Literacy, 46(3), 28-35.

Goldenberg, C. (2020). Reading wars, reading science, and English learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S131-S144.

Goldenberg, C. (2013). Unlocking the research on English learners: What we know—and don’t yet know—about effective instruction. American Educator, 37(2), 4-11, 38.

Goldenberg, C., & Wagner, K. (2015). Bilingual education: Reviving an American tradition. American Educator, 39(3), 28.

Goldenberg, C., & Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2023). Literacy research on English learners: Past, present, and future. The Reading League, 4(1), 1-20.

Institute of Education Sciences. (n.d.). Ask A REL: What research has been conducted to identify effective strategies for supporting struggling readers in upper elementary grades? U.S. Department of Education.

Johnson, L., & Gatlin-Nash, B. (2020). Evidence-based practices in the assessment and intervention of language-based reading difficulties among African American learners. Perspectives on Language & Literacy, 46(2), 19-23.

Kieffer, M. J., & Thompson, K. D. (2018). Hidden progress of multilingual students on NAEP. Educational Researcher, 47(6), 391-398.

Lindner, A. L., Wijekumar, K., & Joshi, R. M. (2020). English spelling performance in writing samples among Spanish-speaking ELLs. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(2), 114–122.

O’Day, J. (2009). Good instruction is good for everyone—or is it? English language learners in a balanced literacy approach. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 14(1), 97–119.

Robertson, K., & Lafond, S. (2008). How to support ELL students with interrupted formal education (SIFEs). Colorín Colorado.

Santoro, L., & Baker, D. L. (2020). E18. Read alouds using a structural layering approach with Dr. Doris Baker and Dr. Lana Santoro. Teaching Literacy Podcast. https://teachingliteracypodcast.com/e18-read-alouds-using-a-structural-layering-approach/

Saunders, W. M., Foorman, B. R., & Carlson, C. D. (2006). Is a separate block of time for oral English language development in programs for English learners needed? The Elementary School Journal, 107(2), 181-198.

Saunders, W., Goldenberg, C., & Marcelletti, D. (2013). Guidelines for English language development instruction. American Educator, 37(2), 13-25, 38-39.

Share, D. L. (2025). Blueprint for a universal theory of learning to read: The combinatorial model. Reading Research Quarterly, 60(2). https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rrq.603

Short, D. J., Fidelman, C. G., & Louguit, M. (2012). Developing academic language in English language learners through sheltered instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 46(2), 334-361.

Smith, J. L. M., Baker, D. L., & Santoro, L. E. (2009, January/February). Early intervention in bilingual education: Teaching phonological awareness in Spanish. NABE News, 31(2), 5–6, 9–14, 27–28.

Tong, F., Lara-Alecio, R., Irby, B., Mathes, P., & Kwok, O. M. (2008). Accelerating early academic oral English development in transitional bilingual and structured English immersion programs. American Educational Research Journal, 45(4), 1011-1044.

Vaughn, S., Cirino, P., Linan-Thompson, S., Mathes, P., Carlson, C., Cárdenas-Hagan, E., Pollard-Durodola, S., Fletcher, J., & Francis, D. (2006). Effectiveness of a Spanish Intervention and an English Intervention for English-Language Learners at Risk for Reading Problems. American Educational Research Journal 43(3), 449–487.

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*Full disclosure: Many members of the Evidence Advocacy Center are authors who receive royalties or are part of organizations that provide fee-based services. The EAC does not recommend instructional materials or fee-for-service organizations. EAC makes available information about evidence-based services and educational products (except instructional materials). Any consulting services or products will be entirely up to the individual EAC members and the EAC does not oversee or regulate the actions, behavior, or activities of the organizations referenced by the EAC or receive any payment from these organizations related to these services or products.

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